Between 1865 and 1890, over 1,200 Chinese laborers worked on Montana’s railroads, including the Northern Pacific Railway. Most were young men from Taishan and Kaiping in Guangdong’s Wuyi region, recruited through clan networks to replace Irish crews deemed too costly. These men left their families behind, hoping to earn enough to send money home or one day return to their villages. But their lives in Montana were far from what they imagined. They faced freezing winters, dangerous work, and relentless discrimination. And yet, despite the odds stacked against them, they built the backbone of Montana’s infrastructure—and with it, a legacy of resilience that continues to echo through time.

Central to their cultural survival was the practice of grave-sweeping rituals , a tradition deeply rooted in southern Chinese customs. These rituals, known as Qingming, became a lifeline connecting these workers to their ancestral homelands and ensuring their spiritual journey continued even in death.

Grave-Sweeping Rituals and Secondary Burials: A Sacred Connection to Ancestral Roots

In southern China, particularly in Guangdong’s Wuyi region, grave-sweeping rituals (Qingming) are sacred practices that have been observed for thousands of years. Families visit gravesites annually to clean tombstones, offer food and incense, and honor their ancestors. For Chinese railroad workers in Montana, these rituals took on profound significance. Far from home, they lived with the constant ache of separation—not only from their families but also from the land where their ancestors lay buried. Grave-sweeping rituals became a way to reclaim a piece of themselves in a foreign and often hostile land.

However, performing these rituals in Montana was no small feat. Anti-Chinese ordinances barred them from municipal cemeteries, forcing them to bury their dead in unmarked plots near railroad camps or outside formal boundaries. For example, China Row Cemetery in Helena was deliberately located far from the main cemetery, reflecting societal marginalization. Despite these challenges, evidence suggests that Chinese communities maintained their traditions discreetly, ensuring that their dead were honored according to custom.

Archaeological findings from sites like China Row Cemetery and Mount Moriah Cemetery in Butte show depressions indicating exhumations—a practice tied to secondary burials and grave-sweeping rituals . Artifacts such as jade ornaments and ceramic offerings suggest adherence to traditional customs. Each depression tells a story of love and loss—a community determined to honor its dead, even when society turned its back.

The Cultural Depth of Secondary Burials

To fully understand the significance of secondary burials , it is essential to delve into the rich cultural context that shaped this practice. Known in Chinese as 迁葬 (Qiānzàng), or “burial moving,” secondary burials are an ancient tradition that dates back to the Neolithic period. Archaeological evidence from sites such as the Yangshao and Banpo cultures reveals traces of similar practices, while early written records, like those in Mozi’s Jie Zang (墨子·节葬 ), describe rituals involving the removal of flesh before re-burying bones—a clear precursor to modern secondary burials.

At its core, the secondary burial process involves two distinct stages:

1. First Burial (大葬, dà zàng):
   After death, the body is placed in a wooden coffin and buried temporarily in a simple grave marked by stones rather than headstones. This initial burial is seen as a temporary measure, as the deceased is considered a “new ghost” whose soul has not yet fully transitioned to the spirit world. During this phase, elaborate ceremonies led by Daoist priests or geomancers are performed to guide the soul of the deceased into the afterlife.

2. Exhumation and Reburial (小葬, xiǎo zàng):
   After 3-10 years—once the soft tissue has fully decomposed—the remains are exhumed. The bones are carefully cleaned with白酒 (baijiu, Chinese liquor), dried, and arranged in a specific order inside a ceramic urn called a “golden jar” (金坛, jīn tán) . This urn is then reinterred in a permanent location chosen for its auspicious feng shui, believed to influence the prosperity of future generations.

For Chinese railroad workers in Montana, this ritual took on profound significance. Far from their ancestral villages, secondary burials ensured that their souls could eventually return home, fulfilling Confucian ideals of filial piety and familial unity. However, performing this intricate process in a foreign land required immense coordination and sacrifice. Clan networks and mutual aid societies played a crucial role in organizing these efforts, ensuring that every step—from exhumation to reburial—was carried out according to tradition.

The importance of secondary burials extended beyond the physical act of reinterment. In southern Chinese belief systems, the condition of the bones reflected the family’s well-being. For instance, the Zhuang people practiced “探金” (tàn jīn), or regularly checking the bones, to ensure they remained intact and undamaged. Similarly, Hakka communities emphasized the role of feng shui in selecting burial sites, believing that a poorly chosen location could bring misfortune to future generations.

Clan Networks: Guardians of Grave-Sweeping Rituals and Cultural Continuity

At the heart of these efforts were clan networks and mutual aid societies , akin to the Chinese Benevolent Association , which provided essential support systems for Montana’s Chinese railroad workers. These organizations offered social, economic, and spiritual assistance, ensuring the survival of traditions like grave-sweeping rituals and secondary burials.

Socially, these networks provided a sense of belonging and mutual aid, helping workers navigate isolation and discrimination. Small Chinatowns sprang up along the Northern Pacific line, where merchants opened businesses, creating spaces for social interaction. Imagine the warmth of shared meals, the laughter of card games, and the solace of familiar faces amidst the cold vastness of Montana’s plains.

Economically, these organizations assisted workers by facilitating access to jobs, loans, and business opportunities post-railroad work. Chinese merchants ran laundries, restaurants, and mercantile shops, supported by associational networks. These businesses imported goods from China, meeting the community’s needs and providing economic stability. When discriminatory unions tried to shut them out, these networks fought back—in Butte, merchants successfully sued discriminatory unions, proving that solidarity could overcome even the harshest obstacles.

Spiritually, these groups organized traditional Chinese rituals, including grave-sweeping ceremonies . Evidence from Chinese cemeteries in Montana shows practices like exhuming remains for return to China, suggesting associations managed these discreet and culturally significant processes. Annual grave-sweeping festivals , performed by groups like the Mai Wah Society in modern times, reflect the enduring legacy of these traditions.

Each act of care, each ritual preserved, was a quiet rebellion against erasure—a declaration that these men mattered, both in life and in death.

Challenges That Tested Their Spirit

The harsh realities of life in Montana made maintaining grave-sweeping rituals nearly impossible—but the workers refused to let go. Shipping remains back to China required immense coordination and sacrifice. Funds had to be raised, logistics planned, and risks taken at every turn. In some cases, exhumed remains may have been reinterred locally due to financial constraints or political instability in China. Even so, traditional rituals like burning joss paper and offering food ensured that the deceased were honored according to custom.

At Mount Moriah Cemetery in Butte, recent Qingming ceremonies have brought the tradition back to life. As described in a 2024 article by NBC Montana, participants gathered to sweep tombs, burn incense, and leave offerings of food and wine. “Qingming literally means clear and bright festival,” explained Hua Li, a professor of Chinese language at Montana State University. “People go to the graveyard to sweep the tombs of their deceased family members to keep the home of their deceased family members clean.”

Pat Munday, a board member of the Mai Wah Society, oversaw the ceremony, pouring wine in a circle around the funerary platform. “Part of honoring the dead is we feed their souls,” he said. “We want the dead to be nourished with wine and food in the afterlife.” Celebrants also burned joss paper boats, intricately folded by Randy Chong, who grew up celebrating Qingming Day with his family. “If they were traveling,” Randy explained, “they had to have money to spend.”

These acts of devotion highlight the emotional weight carried by these men. Objects like Chen Weixi’s jade mahjong tile , donated to the Montana Historical Society in 2019, speak volumes about their humanity. Jade, symbolizing purity and immortality, would have accompanied the deceased to provide comfort and status in the afterlife. Similarly, game pieces like mahjong tiles represented leisure activities, ensuring familiarity in the next world—a reminder that even in death, these men deserved joy and dignity.

Cultural Revival Against the Odds

Today, efforts to honor Montana’s Chinese railroad workers include reviving grave-sweeping rituals alongside secondary burial traditions . Organizations like the Mai Wah Society have played a key role in hosting annual Qingming ceremonies. These events bring together descendants, historians, and community members to clean gravesites, offer food and incense, and reflect on the contributions of Chinese pioneers. Participants often incorporate artifacts like jade ornaments and ceramic offerings, echoing the traditions of southern China’s Wuyi region.

Local advocates are also pushing to protect sites like Buffalo Soldier Canyon , where Chinese and African American laborers once camped together. While concrete evidence of shared rituals or mutual aid between these groups remains sparse, both communities faced similar struggles against racial discrimination and economic marginalization. The Montana Historical Society’s 2023 grant proposal emphasizes “recovering erased stories of collaboration and resilience,” signaling growing recognition of these intertwined histories.

As Mark Johnson, an associate professor of Chinese history at the University of Notre Dame, noted during the 2024 Qingming ceremony in Butte, “What you’re doing here today goes back to the 1860s in Butte. I think it’s a really important line connecting the present with the diversity of Montana’s past.”

A Legacy of Resilience Through Grave-Sweeping Rituals

Montana’s Chinese graves remain elusive, but their legacy endures through oral histories, artifacts, and grave-sweeping rituals . Through clan networks, secret societies, and enduring traditions, Montana’s Chinese railroad workers carved out spaces of belonging in a hostile land. Their story is one of resilience, creativity, and cultural preservation—a testament to human connection that transcends borders and time.

These men built Montana’s backbone. They braved unimaginable hardships, held fast to their traditions, and left behind a legacy that refuses to fade. As we uncover their stories, we honor not just their sacrifices but also the indomitable spirit that binds us all. Let us remember them not as footnotes in history but as heroes who shaped the land we call home.